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Den | Romania | History | Stone Age | Neolithic

Stone Age
Neolithic Era

Topics covered in this section:

Introduction

The Neolithic covers a 3,000 year period, between 5,500 and 2,500 BP (before present). The division between the Mesolithic and the Neolithic, however, is blurred by regional differences.

In Europe, there are three main regions that exhibit distinctive development patterns of Neolithic societies:

• Mediterranean. The Mediterranean, from Italy and Sicily westward, may have been a series of sea-borne colonizations.
• Central and Western Europe. In central and western Europe, from the edge of the Hungarian plain to the river valleys of northern France (but excluding the North European Plain, southern Scandinavia, and the British Isles), the colonization may have been swifter than in other parts of Europe.
• Southeastern Europe. In southeastern Europe, up to the Hungarian plain, immigrants most likely colonized the region in a gradual progression from south to north.

Archaeological Markers

Recently, archaeologists have had to change some of their views about what constitutes a typical Neolithic site.

The use of pottery, the sedentism of agrarian societies, and complex social organization were once thought to be the sole domain of Neolithic populations. These characteristics are now known to have been present in the second half of the Mesolithic as well.

Similarly, farming was once thought to be a characteristic Neolithic activity. Now we know that many early Neolithic groups made extensive use of wild, rather than domestic, resources. Thus, Neolithic peoples might be more appropriately described as complex hunter-gatherers, rather than farmers.

People ... Not Brutes

In the 17th century a writer named Hobbes described Neolithic people as being "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Though typical of archaeologists of that time, Hobbes was considerably wide of the mark in his assessment.

Neolithic people were technically expert in the art of foraging and hunting.

They knew and understood the various dietary and medicinal value of specific plants. They were skilled at manipulating, and perhaps even controlling, the native resources at their disposal, such as plants and animals.

And all of the archaeological evidence indicates that they lived intensely social lives. Many of their social values were based around their sedentary existence. Of importance to their communities were the acquisition and storage of produce and goods, the maintenance of close kin groups, respect for their ancestors, and the symbolic division of the world into its constituent parts.

Still, like their predecessors who lived hundreds of thousands of years before them, the Neolithic colonizers who came from Anatolia and the Near East occupied a relatively empty European landscape.

Settlement Phases

Radiocarbon dates, which are admittedly inadequate in number, suggest that settlement took place earlier in the south (eg, Greece, Bulgaria, and southern Serbia) and moved steadily northward from there (eg, northern Serbia, Croatia, Romania, and southern Hungary).

Neolithic sites are defined by the presence of:

• Styles and patterns found in their pottery
• Figurines crafted from fired clay
• Polished stone artifacts
• Cultivation of wheat and barley crops
• Domesticated sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs
• Timber framed buildings arranged in small clusters

The same or similar characteristics can be found from Greece to the southern part of the Hungarian plain, and on either side of the Carpathians. The sites found so far can be divided into two general settlement phases, covered in the following sections.

First Phase (c.7000-5500 BC)

During the first settlement phase, between about 7000 and 5500 BC (actually the latter part of the Mesolithic), we find permanent settlements. But we also find short-term camps, non-permanent herding locations, and other specialized activity sites.

Permanent Houses

Permanent "houses" or living spaces predominated the Neolithic landscape. They were solidly built and available for permanent occupancy.

The basic architectural unit consisted of a single-room house, squarish to rectangular in shape, and usually constructed from a wooden frame with a daub or clay covering. Examples up to 12 m (about 39.4 ft) long are known, but smaller sizes were also common. They usually had a single entrance with a clay oven or hearth on the back or side wall.

Houses were usually free-standing, but several mud-brick "apartments" were interconnected. They were usually closely spaced; isolated houses were rare. Sometimes houses were arranged in rows, with narrow lanes between them.

Villages

Houses were generally arranged in clusters, which we might call hamlets or villages today. Some of the largest settlements had about 50-60 houses in the cluster.

Settlements were usually separated from neighboring settlements by a few kilometers. This allowed the villages to take advantage of the local resources such as nearby soil for cultivation and grasses for grazing. Those villages near rivers shared common fishing and hunting areas.

Graves

Most known graves were located within the settlement, often in pits beside the houses. This placement likely emphasizes the importance of a particular household in the community.

Tells (Mounds)

Sites were often used and reused over and over, creating tells (mounds) where building materials and detritus accumulated. The size of the tells varies widely.

Second Phase (c.5500-5000+ BC)

During the second settlement phase, between about 5500 and 5000 BC and beyond, we find numerous known sites. The archaeological map of their distribution is vast.

Within the span of perhaps 50 generations or so, Neolithic communities had become well established in the landscape.

The houses during this phase were much larger than before, with evidence showing the popularity of dividing the interior of the house into several rooms.

Villages

Large clusters of homes appear to have become preeminent in this phase. These large sites, whether new or reused, emphasized a higher concentration of people as well as a more productive capacity. Trade and exchange appears to be the source of variety within the community.

Settlements don't appear to show internal differentiation. That is, there doesn't appear to be any evidence of class distinction or status, which might warrant an owner having a larger house than those of his neighbors.

European regions that had previously been avoided, or only sparsely inhabited, now showed signs of agricultural settlement — such as the lower Danube region (including Dobrogea) in Romania, the fringes of the Carpathian basin around the Hungarian plain, the more westerly regions of Bosnia, and the river valleys on the edge of the steppe zone northeast of the Carpathians.

Extensive Trade

Copperworking, which was in its infancy during this phase, contributed modest objects that were suitable for trade. The objects were beaten into shape from native copper or smelted from ores and then beaten into shape. They include beads, pins, hooks, and awls.

Indeed, trading over extended distances occurred. For example, Tisza sites on the Hungarian plain were able to acquire flint, obsidian, stone axes, and fine pottery manufactured by the neighboring Bukk group. Other items were acquired from the upland fringes up to 150 km (90-95 miles) away.

Peaceful Coexistence

There is no clear evidence that most tells were defended or fortified, or even enclosed by walls. The superficial picture is of a well-ordered, peaceful landscape.

There are definite indications of common traditions of religious or spiritual beliefs among the community. Figurines are more varied than in the past. An abundance of these figurines at the larger tells suggests an emphasis on cult and ritual.

Farming

European farming societies began forming back in the Mesolithic and endured for some 3000 years. In the Near East, by contrast, cereal farming can be traced back to 7000 BC.

In Europe the major growth of farming occurred around 5500 to 5000 BC. Shortly thereafter, cereal staples such as wheats and barleys appeared. Since these crops were not native to Europe, this indicates that the technology was borrowed from the Near East.

Why Farming?

Several possibilities exist to explain the sudden interest on the part of Europeans, formerly hunters and gatherers, to settle down and establish farming communities.

One possibility is that it was a result of colonization by incoming Near Eastern migrants seeking new land for their burgeoning populations.

Another possibility is that it might be a result of the gradual transformation of the native society, already sufficiently developed technically and now predisposed to changes.

Or more likely, it was a mixture of both possibilities, since there doesn't appear to have been a uniform process involved, either in the establishment of or in the subsequent development of farming societies.

In southeastern Europe colonization seems to be the most likely possibility. By around 5000 BC, a complex physical and social environment existed, indicating an influx of people from the outside.

In the Mediterranean region, the native communities were probably the major players in this time period and the pace of conversion to farming was much slower than in southeastern Europe.

In central and western Europe colonization is again likely. From about 5500 BC farming communities established a network of hamlets and small villages.

Common Crops

Some common crops found in Neolithic Europe include, but are by no means limited to, the following:

• Wheats. Emmer, einkorn, bread, and club wheats. Emmer and einkorn wheat lack gluten in their flour and cannot be baked into anything lighter than biscuits. Bread and club wheat are hexaploid, or genetically more complex and are suitable for baking.
• Barleys. Two-row and six-row, both hulled and naked.
• Legumes. Peas, lentils, and vetches.
• Wild plants. Acorns, olives, pistachios, cherries, plums, and so on.

Animal Husbandry

Along with agricultural pursuits Neolithic settlements show many signs of the animal husbandry of domesticated animals.

Cattle and pigs, native to Europe, were domesticated. And sheep and goats, most likely introduced from the Near East, were raised.

Dogs were also kept, probably for protection and for help in herding.

Artistic Pursuits

Pottery

The style and decoration of pottery objects varied from site to site, suggesting a form of social identity associated with the designs. The patterns might also imply that different settlements enjoyed various levels of status.

Figurines

The style of fired-clay figurines varied from site to site. Many of the figurines were animals or anthropomorphic designs.

The figurines that depict humans were usually female figures, generally small enough to be held in someone's hand, and usually standing, squatting, or sitting. Their arms may be outstretched, folded, or with hands held on their hips. Often the heads were elongated or rod-like, with faces that were rather bland (or shown wearing a mask). However, the lower limbs and sexual parts were often quite exaggerated.

Archaeologists often interpret the figurines as having religious significance, though archaeology cannot verify what was in the minds of Neolithic farmers. But certain themes tend to stand out.

The figurines are often found conspicuously placed outside or inside houses. And, as mentioned earlier, the primary emphasis seems to have been on female reproduction.

World Parts

The Neolithic world view appears to be categorized into distinct, constituent parts:

• Human vs. animal
• Wild vs. tame or domesticated
• Human (of this world) vs. divine (not of this world)

Burials

Most burials continue to be within the boundaries of settlements. The off-site cemeteries in Dobrogea are one exception. And there are several small cemeteries immediately adjacent to the large Tisza sites on the Hungarian plain.

Romanian Archaeology

We know that a number of migratory Indo-Europeans passed through, and often stayed in, the region that is now Romania. Some of the settlements from the Neolithic period in Romania have been studied at length.

However, archaeology in Romania has not received the attention it deserves. Thus, there is still much to be discovered throughout the country.

Early Neolithic

Criş Culture

The Criş culture, which was of Aegean-Anatolian origin, was widely dispersed over the lower and middle Danube region.

Habitation sites showed a preference for low-lying land near the rivers. The original semi-subterranean dwellings were later superseded by surface huts. They cultivated einkorn wheat and reared domesticated animals.

Their polished stone implements included the "shoe-last" axe. They crafted spindle whorls and loom weights of baked clay that were used to keep the warp threads taut in their upright looms.

Over time pottery designs changed, providing a means of the relative dating of a site. In the earlier period, vases with low pedestal bases are common. The later period shows a preference for barrel-shaped jars. Even later a spiral derivation makes its appearance.

Their pottery is decorated with deeply incised patterns of lines, zigzags, and corn husk designs. Occasionally a honeycomb like pattern is found, produced by a bone spatula, examples of which are often found in the excavations. Often the incised lines were highlighted by white, red, and black paint.

Another interesting variation found at these sites are the many clay stamps (pintaderas) used to daub paint on human bodies.

Linear Pottery Culture

Another offshoot of the earlier Criş culture was the so-called Linear Pottery culture, also known to Romanian archaeologists as the Danubian culture. They get their name from the characteristic linear decoration on their pottery. This culture occupied an extensive territory bounded on the south by the upper and middle Danube, on the north by the North Sea and the Baltic, and eastward to the upper reaches of the Dniester and the Bug rivers.

Sites associated with this culture have been investigated at Leţ in Transylvania, at Bucharest-Dudeşti in Wallachia, and at Perieni in Moldavia. Perieni holds the distinction of being the first known Linear Pottery site east of the Carpathians.

This culture can be dated at about 4430 BC. The Linear Pottery culture of Moldavia evidently belongs to a later stage since it uses a "music note" type of decoration.

Hamangia Culture

The Hamangia culture, who were contemporaries with the Boian culture, lived in the Danube delta region of southeastern Romania. However, unlike the Boian culture, the Hamangia culture shows no direct links with the much older Criş culture which also inhabited this region.

The Hamangia created a number of small marble statues, the most famous of which is called "The Thinker and His Woman" (see photo at right), which depicts a man sitting with his head resting in his hands and a woman sitting beside him. These figurines were unearthed at the Cernavodă site, one of the oldest Neolithic cemeteries in Romania.

The body proportions of these two figures are typical of figurines dating to this time period.

Hamangia pottery is notable both for its variety of form and its decorative technique. Their pottery includes globular vases with cylindrical necks, cylindrical cups, and pedestalled cups (similar to the Criş culture). Their decoration includes incised lines, and patterns of dots and dotted lines.

The height of this culture can be dated at about 4000 BC.

Middle Neolithic

Vinca-Turdaş Culture

The Vinca-Turdaş culture extended over the greater part of the middle Danube area and the Balkans. In central Transylvania it developed a local form with a characteristic pottery type consisting of long-stemmed cups, bowls, and biconical vases decorated with flutings and incised lines.

At Tărtăria, in the Mureş valley of Transylvania, archaeologists have uncovered numerous anthropomorphic figurines manufactured by the Vinca culture.

Many of the figurines, mostly seated, have stubby arms and stylized, abstract legs. The bodies display incised and painted decoration. Their faces are quite exaggerated, often almost triangular in shape, with prominent noses and large eyes, giving them a cat-like (or UFO alien-like) appearance. Holes have been "drilled" into many of them to permit attachments.

One figurine has a deformed head and the impression of scars, which aren't mere ornamentation. Speculatively, it might be a form of "voodoo" doll used in black magic.

But perhaps the most significant find has been the discovery of three unbaked clay tablets. One of them depicts a hunting scene with abstract representations of one or more animals. The other two bear incised enigmatic ideographic signs similar to those found on archaic Mesopotamian tablets from Uruk and Jemdet Nasr.

The "writing" on the Tărtăria tablets has been dated to 4800-4500 BC, much earlier than any of the tablets in Sumeria. Scholars are asking if the tablets represent a language or an art form.

Throughout history, signs have been used much more frequently in everyday life than in ritual. However, practically every single Vinca household contained inscribed objects, where many of the signs and sign groups are uniform in nature. All the characteristics you'd expect to find in the organized writing of a language.

The skeleton of a woman was found near the "pit" where the tablets were found. She was 50-55 years old and was about 1.47 m (4.8 ft) tall. Radiocarbon dating places her death at c.6200 BP.

Boian Culture

In the later stages of the Criş culture, 4000 to 3800 BC, we see slight variations in finds that indicate they merged into other cultures. In southern Transylvania, for example, the Criş culture merged into the Boian culture, which also borrowed technology from the Dudeşti culture (which it supplanted). The Boian culture represents perhaps the most important Neolithic culture in the Balkan-Danube region.

The Boian culture primarily settled south of the Carpathians but its area of diffusion was quite a bit more extensive. It extended into eastern Bulgaria, south of the Danube, and north of the Danube into southeastern Transylvania and southern Moldavia.

The excavations carried out at Bolintineanu and Giuleşti, Vidra, and Spanţov have made it possible to define the various phases of this culture. At Tîrgşor archaeologists have excavated a Boian settlement built on top of an earlier Criş settlement.

One of its chief sites, a large inhumation cemetery at Cernica, yielded valuable evidence on burial practices and on the occurance of personal ornaments (pendants, bracelets, beads) of Mediterranean origin and made of shells. This indicates that extensive intertribal trading existed between the Boian culture in Romania and the Mediterranean region.

The Boian culture built the earliest known sanctuary on the plains region of southern Romania at Căscioarele. The shrine contains wall paintings of geometric designs and a central column. The column resembles the type found in the Anatolian-Aegean area.

Boian pottery is notable for its decoration of excised meanders inlaid with white paste. An S-shaped spiral is a common motif in incised or painted decoration. The skill of the Boian potters is reflected in the footed cylindrical vases, the open dishes, and the cups which have straight sides sloping slightly outward from the base.

Late Neolithic

Many of the late Neolithic cultures fall short of complete cultural unity, but display similar levels of technical and artistic skill.

Elements of Agean and Anatolian design continue to appear at many of these sites. In addition, items from the Gumelniţa culture of Romania (see below) have been found at Ezero in Bulgaria and Dikili Tash in Western Thrace (Greece).

Some Romanian sites of the late Neolithic period have yielded wedge-shaped copper axes, shaft-hold battle axes, vertical blade axes, and double axes.

Pottery technology advanced during this period due to the generalized use of the closed, down-draft kiln. Without this invention the exceptional painted pottery of the Cucuteni and Petreşti cultures could hardly have been produced.

At the same time increasing numbers of spindle-whorls have been uncovered, which are used with a distaff or upright loom. These items indicate the steadily increasing importance of spinning and weaving.

The increased prosperity (livestock, grain, copper weapons, woven goods, and gold ornaments) created a need for these Neolithic peoples to surround their settlements with defensive ditches to ward off potential pillaging expeditions from neighboring tribes. Examples of defensive structures can be found at Cucuteni, Hăbăşeşti, Traian, and Sălcuţa (see below).

Vadeasa Culture

The Vadeasa culture left behind pottery decorated with anthropomorphic themes which predate similar Trojan themes.

Gumelniţa Culture

The Gumelniţa culture supplanted a Boian culture in eastern Wallachia and in Dobrogea. Significantly, radiocarbon and stratigraphic evidence indicate that the earliest Gumelniţa phases antedate or are contemporary with the settlement of Troy.

Among the finest pieces of pottery in this period are the vases and the cups with two lateral handles. These designs indicate a heritage from the earlier Boian culture.

Sălcuţa Culture

The Sălcuţa culture inhabited the Oltenia region in southwestern Romania. They favored building their sites on river terraces. Their economy was based primarily on raising stock.

Bodrogkeresztúr Culture

The Bodrogkeresztúr inhabited a small region in western Romania.

Petreşti Culture

The Petreşti culture established their settlements on the central Transylvanian plain.

The characteristic features of this culture borrows traditions drawn from the Transylvanian (middle Neolithic) Vinca-Turdaş culture combined with elements from the south. They painted tricolor geometric motifs (spirals and meanders) on their pottery before firing.

Cucuteni Culture

The Cucuteni were located in Moldavia and eastern Transylvania. The name is taken from the site of Cucuteni-Băiceni, where it was studied for the first time. Excavations at Izvoare-Neamţ have shed additional light on the culture. Vital evidence of their technological, economic, and social level has been attained by excavations at Hăbăşeşti and Truşeşti.

The culture is also known as the Cucuteni-Tripolye culture. Cucuteni is in Romania and Tripolye is in Ukraine. Their settlements, which lasted for more than 1000 years, are spread over an impressive area of more than 350,000 sq. km. (a little more than 135,000 sq. mi.).

Cucuteni settlements contained signs of a hierarchical organization. There were often large cult centers, fortifications, or individual villages. Tribal centers played a role in the control and movement of raw materials such as salt, flint, copper, or pottery.

The dwellings at Hăbăşeşti were built atop foundations of tree trunks covered with several layers of clay. The clay was often burned to produce a color and consistency similar to brick. The walls, averaging about 2 m (6 ft) high, consisted of a framework of posts and horizontal beams filled in with branches and coated with clay. The roofs were made of reeds and thatch. The huts were large enough to house a family (4-5 m by 8-9 m). Two larger structures (9 m by 15 m) in the center of the village were presumably used for tribal gatherings.

The dwellings at Truşeşti were in parallel rows. Those at Traian were situated in clusters.

The Cucuteni created pottery which is easily identified and is representative of the people as a group. It consists of a distinctive pattern of striped, polychrome designs that cover the entire surface area. The patterns often represent solar symbols in the form of concentric circles. Numerous objects portray androgynous representations of the sun, moon, or planets. Examples of their spiral pottery designs can be seen in my collection of photos taken while I was on vacation in Romania.

The dark red of the main ornamental motifs is set off from the yellowish-white background by a firm black line, which emphasizes the patterns of spirals and meanders.

Four "sacred" numbers appear in numerous cult centers: 3, 7, 4, and 6.

The Cucuteni pantheon was dominated by what has been termed the "Big Goddess." She was the mistress of life and death and was often depicted along with a "tree of life" symbol or with animal symbols of fertility such as snakes, fish, and so on. These fertility symbols were quite common in all Neolithic farming communities.

There are far fewer male statuettes than female. Some of these male figurines have chest bands or hip bealts, probably an indication of their social status. Especially prominent is the male figure that often accompanies the Big Goddess, who together form the divine couple.

Tisza Culture

The Tisza culture settled on the Hungarian plain just north of Romania. Many of the objects recovered from the site display prominent decorations made by incising abstract human features. Many similarly decorated anthropomorphic vessels have been uncovered.

Bechtel Discovery

More recently, vestiges of other Neolithic cultures have been unearthed. For example, in a news story dated 14 Oct 2004, construction workers from the U.S. firm, Bechtel, stumbled upon Neolithic ruins that are more than 6000 years old. They were building a highway that cuts through the historic region of Transylvania, between Braşov in central Romania and the town of Bors on the Hungarian border.

The highway had already caused environmental concerns. In May, on a visit to Romania, England's Prince Charles commented that he was worried about possible environmental damage from building the highway, which goes through Transylvanian villages that are classified as historically important by the UN organization UNESCO.

Now that the construction crew has uncovered the remains of several Neolithic houses, a funeral stone, and numerous pieces of pottery, it seems that Prince Charles was right. The highway, which is to be 415 km (250 miles) long, is estimated to cost 2.5 billion euro (about 3 billion dollars) to build and was scheduled to be finished in 2012. Now it looks like that date will be delayed.

Pronunciation Help

To help American readers, the following pronunciation guide to Romanian words used above is provided. The sounds shown are only approximations, however.

• Băiceni. (Baiceni) Bye-chayn.
• Boian. Boy-yahn.
• Bolintineanu. Boh-leen-teen-yah-noo.
• Cernica. Cher-nee-kah.
• Criş. (Cris) Kreesh.
• Cucuteni. Koo-koo-tayn.
• Dobrogea. Doh-broh-jyah.
• Dudeşti. (Dudesti) Doo-dehsht.
• Giuleşti. (Giulesti) Jyoo-lehsht.
• Gumelniţa. (Gumelnita) Goo-mayl-neets-ah.
• Hăbăşeşti. (Habasesti) Huh-buh-shehsht.
• Hamangia. Hah-mahn-gyah.
• Izvoare. Iz-vwahr-ay.
• Leţ. (Let) Layts.
• Mureş. (Mures) Moor-raysh.
• Neamţ. (Neamt) Nyahmts.
• Oltenia. Ohl-tayn-yah.
• Perieni. Pehr-yayn.
• Petreşti. (Petresti) Pay-tresht.
• Sălcuţa. (Salcuta) Suhl-koots-ah.
• Spanţov. (Spantov) Spahnt-sohv.
• Tărtăria. (Tartaria) Tuhr-tuhr-yah.
• Târgşor. (Targsor) Tirg-shohr.
• Traian. Try-ahn.
• Truşeşti. (Trusesti) Troo-shehsht.
• Turdaş. (Turdas) Toor-dahsh.
• Vadeasa. Vahd-yah-sah.
• Vidra. Veed-rah.
• Vinca. Veen-kah.
• Wallachia. Vah-lahk-yah.